Running Head: Transracial Adoption
Transracial Adoption:
Adoption Issues and Family Uniform Identity
Submitted to: Barbara Bland
By Lindsay R. Neumann
Abstract
This paper discussed transracial adoption and the issues surrounding it. First it looked at the history of transracial adoption and the current laws concerning transracial adoption. It takes a close look at what issues have arisen with transracial adoption, and how these issues have been dealt with. Two families were interviewed for this paper. Their responses were used to explore their unique journeys through adoption, and formation of family uniform identity. This paper concluded that transracial adoption is a good thing for all people involved.
Introduction
In every form of adoption there are various issues that arise within the adoptive family. These issues include with emotional needs, physical needs, behavioral problems, and parent-child attachment. With transracial adoption there is a whole new set of issues that are present. These issues deal with race, culture, racial identity, dealing with racism and prejudice. How a family reacts to these issues is important in the creation of their family. These added issues amplify the complications involved in creating a uniform identity among the family members. This identity is what each member of the family refers to in defining their part in the family. It is how these children and parents know that they belong to one another. Having this uniform identity allows the family to face society as a single family unit.
The researcher has had first hand experience in the adoption process and has also experienced racial the racial issues that arise in transracial adoption because she is a member of a transracially adoptive family. She is the birth daughter, and the eldest of a family of ten children. Seven children were adopted into her family, all of them transracially. As a result she has been through the process of family identity change.
Definitions
Transracial or Transcultural Adoption – an adoption that takes place where parents are of another racial or ethnic background then the children they are adopting
In-racial or Same-race Adoption – an adoption in which the parents and children are of the same racial and ethnic background
Cultural Competence – The need to be aware and knowledgeable of other cultures. In the case of transracial adoption, cultural competence comes in the form of learning about the child’s birth culture and being equipped to introduce them to that culture through out their life.
Racial Awareness – being aware of the social effects of race in American culture, the prejudices people have. Being able to equip a child of color to deal with these issues.
Racial Identity – being able to positively identify oneself with one’s race. Having a positive self image and concept of oneself in regards to race.
White Privilege – this is a set of privileges and social benefits that are given to those with light complexions, normally whites. The concept of white privilege is not readily known among many who receive it. Examples of white privilege would be expecting to be treated with respect in public settings, and the fact that most of the positions, political and business, are filled by whites. White privilege also includes the assumption that a person is white when their race is unknown. For example, when you read a book, hear a voice on the radio, or listen to someone else talk about a person and the race of that those persons is not know, it is automatically assumed by most that the person is white.
Family Uniform Identity – the process of identity change on the levels of race, culture, and family roles that take place with each member of a family during the process of adoption. This change occurs within the family unit from the beginning of the adoption process until several years after finalization. During this process the family learns to identify one another as family, recognizing that they belong to one another, and facing society and the world as a single family unit.
This paper does not discuss issues related to the Indian Child Welfare Act, nor explore adoptions of children of American Indian Descent. Little emphasis is given to transracially adoptive scenarios not between white parents and black children.
This paper does
discuss transracial adoption in
Literature
Review
This paper discusses transracial adoption (TRA). It looks at the various issues that affect families that adopt transracially, and how these issues develop after the adoption. This paper also closely examines the transformation that takes place within the entire family during adoption, and in this case specifically transracial adoption.
History of Transracial Adoption
The form of adoption that is recognized in
The
first significant occurrence of TRA in
The most common form
of TRA today is adoption taking place between white parents and black children
(Hollingsworth 1998, Vonk 2001).
White-black adoption began in the 1950s, as a result of encouragement of
racial integration, as well as to provide homes for the many children of color
in the foster care system. (Johnson P. R. 1987, Morin 1977) This trend increased through the 1960s and on
into the 70s, until the National Association of Black Social Workers (NABSW)
declared transracial adoption as “cultural genocide” (Morin 1977, Simon &
Roorda, 2000). In essence the NABSW was
stating that transracial adoption was literally destroying the black culture in
Laws Concerning Transracial Adoption
Transracial adoption is legal in
the
Situations like these prompted the creation of the
Multi Ethnic Placement Act (MEPA) in 1994 (McRoy & Grape 1999, Heifetz-Holinger
1998). The purpose of the act was to
eliminate the “bottle-neck” (Simon & Alstien, 1996) of children who were in
the foster care system waiting for placement, by eliminating racial barriers.
The MEPA stated adoption agencies who receive federal financial support cannot “categorically deny[ing] to any person the opportunity to become and adoptive or foster parent, solely on the basis of the race, color, or national origin of the adoptive or foster parent or the child… from delay[ing] or deny[ing] the placement of a child solely on the basis of race, color or national origin of the adoptive or foster parent or parents involved. (MEPA of 1994 in Hollingsworth, 1998, 106).
Despite the intent of the MEPA, holdup within the adoption and foster care system still occurred. The conditions laid out in the MEPA were not effective because the wording still allowed for race to be one of the factors in denying placement. Therefore the Interethnic Adoption Provisions (IEP) was created (Heifetz-Holinger 1998). The IEP stated a “mandate that race cannot even be one of a group of reasons routinely used when making placement decisions” (Nadel 1998 in McRoy and Grape, 1996).
Now these laws allow for transracial adoption to occur more easily. The two acts are combined now and referred to as MEPA-IEP (Heifetz-Holinger 1998).
Opposition to Transracial Adoption
The National Association of Black Social Workers (NABSW) has been a major opponent to transracial adoption. In 1971, William T Merritt, then president of the NABSW gave a speech in protest of the rise in TRA. In his speech he stated that transracial adoption was “cultural genocide” (Simon & Roorda, 2002). The following year the NABSW gave a resolution in which they said:
“Black children belong physically, psychologically and culturally in black families where they a can receive the total sense of themselves and develop a sound projection of their future. Only a black family can transmit the emotional and sensitive subtleties of perceptions and reactions essential for a black child’s survival in a racist society. Human beings are products of their environments and develop there sense of values, attitudes and self concept within their own family structures. Black children in white homes are cut off from the healthy development of themselves as black people.”
Other sources support the NABSW’s proclamation that whites cannot provide the psycho-social needs for black children in today’s racist world (Chimezie, 1977). These sources also confirm the question as to whether or not white parents can teach black children the skills they need to survive (Patton, 2000)
In the argument against TRA, the number of minority children in the foster care system is brought up. Many people will claim the need for transracial adoption lies in the fact that there are so many children of non-white heritage in foster care. To counter this claim, same-race adoption supporters use the fact that accurate statistics on adoption haven’t been kept since 1971 (Hollingsworth, 1998). Therefore we cannot claim there are a significant number of minority children needing adoptive placement. Hollingsworth also points out that many of these children whose files show that they “have a permanency plan for adoption” are not actually available for adoption. Many of the African-American children in the foster care system are in kinship foster care.
Kinship care is given by a relative of the child, usually aunts, uncles, or grandparents. Kinship placement rarely results in adoption because the caregiver “considers themselves and the child as being a part of the same family (Hollingsworth 1998). So while a child’s file may state they are available and in need of adoption, in reality they are in a permanent kinship foster care placement.
Arguments have also
been made in attempt to show that transracial adoption is psychologically
harmful to the children adopted. Howe,
an African-American professor a
Despite these various claims that TRA is harmful and
unnecessary, there have been no scientific studies done to support those points
(Simon & Alstien, 1996). “The
arguments against transracial adoption have no empirical base; they are ideologically
and politically driven” (Simon & Alstien, 1996).
Support for
Transracial Adoption and previous studies
On the other hand, support for transracial adoption is plentiful. Many studies have been done on transracial adoption (Simon & Alstien, 1996; Johnson, 1987; Bagley, 1993; DeBerry, 1996; Vidal de Haymes, et. al 2000). Simon and Alstien have conducted the only long term study on transracial adoption. They were able to follow over three hundred transracial adoptees and parents over the course of 20 years. (1996; Goldsmith 1999). Simon and Alstien have concluded that transracial adoption works and that it is a “good thing for the children and the families” (1996).
Simon, along with Roorda, a transracial adoptee, interviewed twenty transracial adoptees in a compiling work entitled “In Their Own Voices.” In this book the voices of children who have been through the experience of transracial adoption were shown, the struggles as well as the joys.
A study conducted by Johnson (1987) showed that questions and comfort level about race were high in transracially adoptive families as opposed to same-race. Johnson stated that 65% of the children in transracial homes were comfortable enough to ask questions about their biological parents compared to only 30% in same race homes. It has also been stated that at preschool age, black children adopted transracially has a more positive self image than those adopted inracially. (Simon Alstien 1977 in Johnson 1987). That is not to say that children adopted inracially are at a disadvantage, but just that the concerns stated by the NABSW and others are being addressed within transracial adoptive homes.
Many parents are very aware of what is going on this world, and what needs to be done to help their children lead productive lives. Leftwich (1996) stated:
“Racism and bigotry were assumed to be the dominant realities which would shape the adopted children's experiences in the world, and their parents were driven to provide their children with the tools the parents thought would prepare them to cope with the consequences.”
Training and Support for Adoptive Parents
In nearly every form of adoption training
is required to some extent for the parents wishing to adopt. In
It is necessary for parents who adopt transracially to have some form of training directed at the issues of race, skin color and discrimination. Many white couples who plan on adopting are often unaware of prejudice that they, themselves, may have that can hinder the child’s growth and development as a person. (Vonk & Angram 2001). Cultural competence training for parents who have adopted across racial boundaries is helpful.
Review of issues in adoption and transracial adoption
Within every adoption, transracial or same-race, there are issues that are brought forth. Across all adoptions there are issues that range from mild behavioral and emotional problems to attachment disorders, prenatal drug exposure, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders. Within TRA an entirely new set of issues arise. Families who adopt transracially need to be prepared to deal with “issues of racial dynamics as they exist in society today” (McRoy & Grape 1999). Race and skin color, and the importance placed on them by American society is something that the parents and siblings within a transracially adoptive family need to be readily aware of.
The
“love is colorblind” (Steinberg & Hall, 2002) mentality is commonplace in
transracially adoptive homes. While it
is important that the families do not allow skin color be a determining factor
within the family, they must be aware that skin color is significant in American
culture.
McRoy states:
“Families must recognize that they are not simply adopting a child from a different racial background, but that the child comes with an entire historical and cultural heritage that will influence how he or she will be treated both by blacks and white.”
While studies have revealed that “there are whites who are capable of rearing emotionally healthy black children” (Ladner 1977 in Simon & Alstien 1996), it is also stated that “skin color is a significant factor” that needs to be taken into consideration in preparation for transracial adoption, because there is a distinct relationship between a person’s skin color and experiences with discrimination (McRoy & Grape, 1999).
It is therefore imperative that parents in transracial adoption are adequately prepared to assist their child in growing up in our society. Within the family unit itself though, it is essential that a “sincere effort to change their lives” (Wardle, 1991), occurs in a way that draws the child into the family and the family to the child. There needs to be an identity change that occurs within each member of the family, almost a form of“assimilation” (Johnson, 1987). This growth should be based on the “acknowledgment not rejection of the differences” (Kirk in Johnson, 1987). Kirk’s statement reflects the definition of family uniform identity; a process that is unique in each family setting.
Research
Methodology
A key part of this paper was the primary research. To further the study of transracial adoption, this researcher needed to conduct some form of primary research.
The researcher formulated a questionnaire/interview that was conducted with several adoptive families. The purpose of the research was to support the researcher’s claim of identity change that takes place in the process of transracial adoption, namely that of the family. There were three sets of questions for the three different groups she chose to interview. She had a set of questions for the parents of transracially adopted children, for the biological children in transracially adoptive families, and for the adopted children as well.
In the interviews with the parents of transracially adoptive families, the researcher’s purpose was to find out what issues regarding race were brought up before the adoption, and how these issues panned out. During the process of TRA, especially local adoptions, the parents go through cultural training, equipping them to understand some of the issues that adopting children of another race can bring. These issues can include such things as dealing with racism, how to incorporate the child’s birth culture into their new life, and also in the case of African-American children, how to do their hair. With the interview of these parents, the researcher planned to find out what issues were addressed to these parents prior to their adoption, and how these issues were resolved after the adoption.
The interviews for the children adopted transracially allowed for the viewpoint of these children to be known. The researcher hoped to find out how the issues of the adoption process affected these children, but specifically those issues involving race. Questions that were asked are: Does it bother you that you have different color skin than your parents and/or siblings? When you found out your parents were white, what did you think about that? How do you feel about your adoption? This researcher wanted to bring to light how the transracial adopted child is affected by the race issue in adoption.
Another interview was needed to learn about the identity change that takes place in the process of TRA. This interview was that of the biological children in the adoptive family. No matter what the age these children are, whether they are older or younger than their adoptive siblings, transracial adoption has had a significant effect on them. In interviewing these siblings, the researcher planned to gain an understanding of the process of identity change that takes place in the family, from the biological siblings view point. She wanted to also see how skin color and race are a factor in forming a sibling relationship.
Through this series of interviews, the researcher hoped to gain a clearer understanding of the issues in transracial adoption, as well as paint a picture for the readers as to what occurs within the family unit during transracial adoption.
The two families that participated in this research are to be referred to as “Family A” and “Family B”.
Family A has ten children, seven of whom are adopted, three are biological. Two of their children, a boy and a girl sibling group, joined the family in 1998. They were adopted through Minnesota Waiting Children and are of African-American Heritage. The other five children were adopted in 2001, through a Haitian Orphanage Adoption program. Six of the adopted children and two of the biological children participated in the study, along with the parents. The youngest biological child passed away in 1999. These interviews were conducted in person. See figures one and two for reference
Family B has seven children, three biological and four adopted. Two of their children, an African-American boy and girl, were adopted transracially in 1998 also through Minnesota Waiting Children. The youngest two children, are also a sibling group, two sisters who were foster-adopted into the family in 1999 and 2001. For this study, the parents, two biological children, and the elder two adopted children participated. These interviews took place via email.
Transracial adoption had lead to a more complex family structure that the typical American family. By exploring the relationships and concerns of each group of family members, the paper has provided and avenue of clear understanding of the benefits of TRA.
Family
A: adopted children
|
|
Age |
Number of years in home |
Gender |
|
Child 1A |
14 |
Five |
Female |
|
Child 2A |
11 |
One and a half |
Female |
|
Child 3A |
10 |
Five |
Male |
|
Child 4A |
8 |
Two |
Male |
|
Child 5A |
8 |
Two |
Female |
|
Child 6A |
6 |
One and a half |
Male |
Figure 1
Family
A: siblings
|
|
Age |
Gender |
|
Sibling 1A |
20 |
Female |
|
Sibling 2A |
17 |
Male |
Figure 2
Family
B: adopted children
|
|
Age |
Number of years in home |
Gender |
|
Child 1B |
13 |
Five |
Female |
|
Child 2B |
12 |
Five |
Male |
Figure 3
Family
B: siblings
|
|
Age |
Gender |
|
Sibling 1B |
14 |
Female |
|
Sibling 2B |
12 |
Male |
Figure 4
Findings
American society is a very race conscious society. This importance placed on race causes an increased struggle in areas that involve the crossing of racial boundaries. Transracial adoption is one of these areas. Parents and children in transracial families face issues surrounding race, culture, and prejudices on a daily basis. Both of the families interviewed for this paper shared unique experiences in dealing with these issues.
Since its beginnings, TRA has faced much opposition. The National Association of Black Social Workers (NABSW) has been one of the main opponents to transracial adoption. The NABSW’s stance as well as that of many other Americans has caused a continuing struggle for adoptive parents, and their children, when the adoption crosses racial lines. With the families interviewed the parents felt the brunt of the opposition, mainly through the pre-adoption process. Family A recalled how they experienced strong opposition from some members of their extended family.
In response to the NABSW’s claim that white parents are unable to properly equip black children to grow up in this “white world,” the mother of Family B stated:
I think there are a lot of parents who do not prepare their children properly for the world. But I think it is the opposite. They do not prepare them to be black. It is such a different world. Blacks tend to live in different areas than white folks. Will my children be comfortable living in a predominantly black neighborhood? I pray they will be. I would like them to be surrounded by those who have jobs to support their families and live in neighborhoods of mostly blacks just as easily as in a very mixed neighborhood or a predominately white area… Sometimes I think my children grasp how much hatred there is toward them merely because of the color of their skin. Sometimes they can ignore that and make people get to know who they are. We have insulated them from some of that prejudice, but we have to prepare them for it at the same time.”
The parents in Family A, scoffed at this question. They felt it was almost a ridiculous claim, and had no justification. They stated,
“As a culture, we place entirely too much emphasis on race as an issue. Many people believe that your identity is based on your race, on your culture. We do not agree. We believe your identity should be based on your relationship with Christ. Cultural Heritage is important, and part of our family study, but it is equally important as our non-adoptive heritage.”
Family A’s faith played a significant role in their adoption, and has worked positively in the families’ formation of family uniform identity.
Cultural and pre adoptive training took place for both of the families interviewed. Both of the families’ first adoption was through Minnesota Waiting Children, therefore they participated in the state mandatory training. The parents reported that the training focused mainly on issues that were universal across all adoptions. Some of the information they were given was in regards to the special needs of older children and sibling groups. Family A reported that “little emphasis was given toward transracial adoption” during the training.
Family B stated that one of the presenters at their training was a transracially adoptive parent. “She shared many experiences, concerns and joys from her many years of parenting. She shared issues surrounding having your children having role models of the same color, the prejudice United State’s society has against African Americans.” Hearing the reports of other parents who had adopted transracially was helpful for these families, but it also raised questions.
Both sets of parents had many concerns in adopting a child of another race, although both families reported that race was not the primary factor, and basically a non issue when it came to deciding to adopt transracially. The concerns the parents shared ranged from what the reaction would be in bring black children into a white neighborhood, how the children would accept parents and siblings of a different color; and how to care for black skin and hair.
In response to the first two major concerns, the families reported that in the long run, their concerns weren’t justified. Family A stated “None of our concerns regarding integration into the neighborhood and our church circle of friends were justified. Our children were and are very well accepted.” Family B shared, “We were reassured by our children’s social worker, therapists and foster parents that they just wanted parents. They did not have a mindset about what color their parents would be.”
The
children who were interviewed reported that they had little to no concerns or
worries about being adopted, or about having parents who were white. Child 1B stated “I thought people would make
fun of me [because my parents were white].
Nobody ever makes fun of me so I don’t worry about that anymore.”
Each of the children were asked to remember what they imagined their adoptive parents would look like, namely what color skin they would have. The answered varied from child to child, and there didn’t seem to be any significant similarities between the children who thought one way, and those who thought another. It seemed evenly split between those who imagined parents who were white, and those who imagined parents who were black. Child 4A commented that he thought they might have been many different colors. The majority of the children stated that it didn’t matter to them what color skin their parents had, they just wanted to be adopted. Child 1A stated that she was anxious upon finding out her adoptive parents were white. Her response to learning the skin color of her parents was “will they know how to do my hair?”
As stated before, hair is a fairly large issue in adoption, especially transracial adoption that takes place between white parents and black children. The parents in family A also expressed concern about this issue. As a result of their concern they studied and researched the care of African American hair prior to the adoption. They also talked with the children’s current foster parents, who were black, and asked many questions about the issue of hair and skin care. Family A reported, “Our study of skin and hair needs paid off well, and we have learned and taught others how to deal with these issues.” They also shared that are comfortable in discussing hair issues with other African Americans, and have occasionally been questioned by other African American parents on how they do their daughters “beautiful hair.”
The subject of hair also came up in the siblings interviews. Questions were asked to all of the research participants about different forms of discrimination, and how they saw these in their lives. Sibling 1B stated twice, that she gets annoyed with “all the constant questions about my sister’s black hair… when she wears extensions.”
The siblings and the parents described many other instances where they felt that unnecessary attention was drawn to their family, both positive and negative, because of their adoption and racial differences.
Instances of
racism have been present in both families on various occasions. The parents are very aware of American society’s
emphasis on race, and the prejudices that other people may have. When asked how they prepare their children
for racism and how they combat racism in their homes, family A stated:
“We have taught them and continue to teach them what
is important in creating their identity.
That it is not based on the color of their skin or how they look. We have taught them to ignore such remarks
and to have a firm self-image. As they
grow older and are exposed to more hostility and discrimination, we will deal
with those issues.”
Family B stated, “We talk a lot and try to explain to them that people are not always nice. There are certain places we choose not to go to because of discriminatory treatment.”
The parents in family B shared “All you have to do is walk into a Wal-Mart and see the way people look at you. Sometimes they admire you. Sometimes they look down on you. People think nothing of asking you if you have adopted and want to know your whole story.”
Attentions like these become bothersome to the children and the families. Sibling 1A stated “all the attention makes it difficult at times to feel as though we are a normal family. At least that’s how we view ourselves.”
Part of this view of normalcy is key in creating a uniform identity for these families. The parents and the siblings who participated in the interviews gave keen insight into this part of the adoption process. This was mainly because they were in the family prior to the start of the process. This researcher has also had first hand experience with this.
She stated:
“People talk about the importance of racial identity, connections to birth culture, and things of that nature. I do agree that these things are important. But I have seen with my own eyes my family come into our own identity, and create our own culture. It’s a blending of the cultures that each of us came from. It’s just us.”
This researcher used the term “family uniform identity” to define the process of transformation that occurs within the family. Throughout the interviews this process showed. Family B stated, “The kids are bonded as siblings and think of themselves as siblings even though they’d like to disown each other too. That happens with birth siblings too.”
The parents in
family A were quick to point out that there is a difference between identity
and cultural heritage. This, along with
their faith, played an important roll in their formation of family uniform
identity. In family A, they talk about a
blending of cultures that has taken place.
European, American, African-American, and Haitian cultures all are a
part of the cultural heritage and identity of family A. This process of blending occurred over a
length of time, during and after the adoption process. It began with the parents and their
biological children learning about the heritages of the adopted children, and
the adopted children, in turn, learning about the family’s initial
heritage. After the children were placed
in the home both cultures existed and were explored until a balance between
them arose. The parents in family A
recall that, “our adopted children take great pride in claiming that they are
direct descendants of Abraham Lincoln, which they are, thru their adoptive
mother.”
Family B shared similar experience in the blending of cultures that took place in their family. They stated: “We teach them music, books, movies, dress, etc. We attend an all black church sometimes. They are conscious of black ‘style’. All of this incorporated into our lifestyle, so it’ more of who we are as family rather than just them.”
The experiences with racism have only helped to unite the families further. Talk about skin color, occurs often and openly. Sibling 1B shared how “They tease me about being the pale one. But I can’t object, because I know it’s true. I think it helps us be closer that we can tease about our colors.”
Another
significant issue that plagues transracial families is to which race they
identify themselves with. Again, this
just fuels the process of family uniform identity. The family as a whole often doesn’t find a
specific race to identify with and as a result they are drawn closer to one
another. The parents in family B stated,
“We often tease that we are from the human race.” Both families found
It was clear with the conclusion of the interviews that these families were well adjusted, blended, and had significantly formed their families uniform identity. They recognized the members of their family as belonging to one another and they were able to face society with a united mindset and a closeness that can be found in many same-race families. The parents, the siblings, and the children all unanimously agreed that they were happy with the way their family was put together, and the way their family exists today.
Conclusion
While
transracial is a new form of adoption in
Recommendations
This study could be researched further. Utilizing more primary research would help, more interviews done with more families. These interviews should all be done in person. The researcher should spend time observing the family and how they work together.
Another possible way of furthering this research would be to study families of a period of five to six years. The observation or study of the family would begin at the beginning of their adoption, soon before the children would be placed in the home. A series of interviews for parents, siblings, and children would be conducted at various times during the five/six year period. This way the researcher could watch the process of family uniform identity as it took place. By studying more families the clearer the findings will be, as you will see the similarities in certain parts across the range of families.
Comparison studies could be done using families who adopted from specific ethnic groups, Latino, Asian, and African-American. As well as comparison studies with local and international. Comparison studies could also be done with same-race adoptive families to compare how the family uniform identity process takes place without racial issues.
References
Bagely,
C. (1993). Transracial adoption in
Chimezie, A. (1975). Transracial adoption of black children. Social Work, 20, 294-301.
DeBerry, K. M. (1996). Family racial and socialization and ecological competence: longitudinal assessments of African-American transracial adoptees. Child Development, 67, 2375-99.
Goldsmith, S. (1999). The color of love, New Times Los Angeles. Retrieved March 22 from http://casey.umd.edu/casey/web/medals.nsf
Heifetz
Hollinger, J. (1998). A
Guide to The Multiethnic Placement Act of 1994 as Amended by the Interethnic Adoption Provisions of 1996.
Herman
E. (2002). The paradoxical
rationalization of modern adoption. (social and economic aspects of adoption). Journal
of Social History, 36, 2, 339-49.
Retrieved from InfoTrac Database
Hollingsworth, L. D. (1998). Promoting same-race adoption for children of color. Social Work, 43, 104-113.
Johnson, P. R. (1987). Transracial adoption and the development of black identity at age eight. Child Welfare, 46, 45-55.
Leftwich,
G. (1996). Transracial adoption: a
community conversation. Focus on Law Studies,
12. Retrieved
McRoy, R. G. & Grape, H. (1999). Skin color in transracial and inracial adoptive placements: implications for special needs adoptions. Child Welfare, 78, 5, 673-92.
Morin, R. J. (1977). Black child, white parents: a beginning biography. Child Welfare, 56, 576, 83
Patton,
S. L., (2000). BirthMarks: transracial
adoption in contemporary
Simon, R. J. & Alstien H. (1996). The case for transracial adoption. Children and Youth Services Review, 18, 5-22.
Simon,
R. J. & Roorda, R. M. (2000). In their own voices: transracial adoptees
tell their stories.
Steinberg,
G. & Hall, B. (2002). Inside
transracial adoption.
Vidal
de Haymes M., & Blakemore & Simon, S. (2000). Children
of color in foster care and the
multiethnic placement act: The experiences of families involved in transracial
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Glossary
Adoptee the person who is being or was adopted
Adoptism discriminating against someone due to the fact they are adopted or are part of an adopted family
Genocide – annihilation or attempt at annihilation of a group of people, often based on race or religious beliefs
Racial Profiling – negative assumptions made about groups of people on the basis of race
Racism discriminating against someone on the basis of their race
Appendix One: Transcript of children’s
interviews
Child
2A questions and answers
I am
nice. I don’t like when I share a bed
with [my sister] and I kick her, accidentally.
I like when people are nice and don’t yell, and aren’t rude. I want everyone to know Jesus.
I was adopted from
Yes
I thought they would be white, because other
kids [in the orphanage] were adopted by white people
I felt fine; I was jumping up and down
because I was going to be adopted. Some
kids were mad at me, but not my birth brother, he was praying for me and was
happy. It didn’t bother me then, or now.
No
It’s not important, it doesn’t matter.
Sometimes I look at other people’s skin, and
think “wow I want that skin color,” but they I think “no I am happy with my
skin color, because that how God made it.
It’s kind of like wanting to have a different hair color, or hair
cut. I would just like to try it for a
day.
No
no, not really nobody ever says anything
like that to me
No, they could, but nobody has
I would make me feel sad; I would go tell my
mom if that happened.
I
feel good. I am glad I am here, because
in
Child
3A questions and answers
10
years old, I lived in a foster home; it’s not fun in foster homes. I used to be a Barney fan, now I am a Star
Wars fan.
I was
5, in US
No
Imagined them white
Happy, of course it didn’t bother me that
they had a different color skin
No worries
Doesn’t matter
No I don’t think about it a lot, but I like my skin color. Kind of light, not very dark brown.
Never
At first I didn’t want anyone to know I was
adopted, that was a long time ago. When
I was at church when I was little, and my mom and dad called me, I wouldn’t
come because I didn’t want people to know that my mom and dad were white and I
wasn’t.
No
Fine
I
feel good about being adopted, yeah. I
wish my mom and dad were a little bit younger.
Then they could run around.
Child
4A questions and answers
I used to be called Micah, but it was said a
different way. When I was in the
orphanage, some people were rude. I’ve
been playing in this big closet, I’d hide in it. I don’t have it any more. I run faster than anybody else.
6,
international
I
thought they were gonna be black skin, green skinned or blue
It felt a little strange, no it didn’t
bother me. No, I didn’t bother me ever.
No
Not important, because we all have different
skin. Like Mickey mouse has white skin
and black skin. Lindsay, you don’t have
white skin, you have light skin
No, I like my brown skin. If I had light skin I would still like it.
Yeah; long time ago when I was in
Yeah, people said it was no fair that I got
to be adopted; people in the orphanage
Yeah; in
Sad
Happy; happy that this is my family. Nervous… I get nervous when people are saying
mean things.
Child
5A questions and answers
I am
nice, I sometimes get mad or angry, because I don’t get to do stuff. I like to play outside, I like to play on the
computer, I like to blow on the flute and I want to get one sometime. Sometimes I don’t like going to sleep
Six, from
I never thought I would be adopted
Kind of
Good, love, no it didn’t bother me
No I didn’t think much about it
Very
important; its important to me and I would want her to like my skin
Yeah; I think its good. At church a girl looked at me, and it felt
like she was thinking I have weird skin, she has better skin then me
No
People just ask me about it. They ask me if I
speak English, or if I know any Creole
Some people ask “why don’t they have the
same [skin]” I just say “that’s how God made me, are you weird or
something. You have different colors
too.”
Worried, that we aren’t born in the same
family, that people would say that. I was
worried that people would make a big deal about it. Like how Hannah wasn’t born into the same
family as me. Maybe people would treat
us different.
Good, very good. People are nice here. Very happy.
14. Anything else you want to share?
I really wanted to be adopted, it was fun
that I got to be here with you guys. I
like my color, and I like your color.
Its cool I get to be in a family.
Sometimes the house gets messy, but I still like it. Its cool here, because you get special stuff,
and people love you. And mom gives you
hugs all the time and it makes you feel good.
Thank you for that. I just like
to be here.
That’s how God made us, he wanted us to be
in this family. He called us to do
that. Mom and dad thought we were
cute. That’s just how God did it. And they love us, that’s why we are in their
family
Child
6A – questions and answers
I am a
boy that obeys, and listens, and doesn’t disobey. I listen to my mom and dad. I help people. I like to play legos and
Adopted from
Yes
I
thought they would be white
I felt happy, it didn’t bother me, it
doesn’t bother me now
No, I
was just happy
Very important
I
sometimes think that my mom and dad could be this color; that people would like
that color. NO it doesn’t matter that I
have brown skin
Nope
No
No, well the big kids at church say “you are
weird” they try to get me to stay and play with them
n/a
Happy I am happy that this is the family
that I am in. Happy and glad
14. Anything else you want to share?
I have animals and I like my friends. I had a dream that dad was brining home our
chickens and an alien crashed in our house, but we got out quickly and they
were chasing us and stuff…
Child
1B questions and answers
I am thirteen. I love rodents. I love doing hair. I love reading and handwriting.
I
don’t remember. (You were 9.) It was
from within the
Yes.
Well, I thought they would be black.
I didn’t think they would have glasses.
I thought my mom and dad would have really long hair.
No answer
No, I
just felt happy that I had someone who cared about me. I like them how they are.
I thought people would make fun of me. Nobody ever makes fun of me, so I don’t worry
about that anymore.
I would not think to tell someone what color
I am.
It doesn’t really matter to me. I like the way I’m made.
I have been called names. It made me very angry. I have beat up one little girl because she
called me “little black girl.”
Not really.
They just treat me like a person.
No.
Yes, I am very happy.
Child
2B questions and answers
Okay, I like to play with kids. I want to be in the Army. I love being with animals.
I
think I was 8 in the
Well, I thought
my mom and dad would be white.
No, it didn’t bother me. No.
Well, I thought they would act like black
people. They do act kind of like black
people. In some ways they are
different. Their hair is different. You dress different. Most black people wear dresses and
suits. It’s okay the way my parents
dress.
I probably wouldn’t think to tell them I am
black.
I think about it when I grow up that my skin
color might change. I think I might be
darker or lighter. I would rather have
darker skin than I do now. It doesn’t
matter a lot what color my skin is.
Yes. This one kid, Paul, he calls
me blackanese. It makes me kind of mad,
but not a lot. I either tell someone
when I am called names but mostly I just go talk to someone else.
No.
Actually, somebody asked me if it was bad to be adopted or if it feels
kind of nice. I told them it’s not too
bad.
Not that I know of.
No answer
Yep.
Appendix Two: Transcripts of parents’ interviews
Adoptive
Parents Family A questions and answers
We adopted a sibling
group of 2 from the
We considered
transracial adoption as part of considering the
Our initial training revolved around the needs of older adopted children, sibling group adoption and general adoption issues. Very little emphasis was placed on trans-racial issues.
The training involved mostly dealing with how to deal with others questioning your trans-racial adoption, in particular other family members, aunts, uncles, grandparents. There was some discussion of racial issues in the light of connecting with other groups for support and with some of the basics in caring for a black child namely, skin and hair concerns.
We had very few concerns regarding race initially other than skin and hair care. I had some long term concerns regarding integrating black children into a primarily white neighborhood. What would the reaction be? Also we had questions regarding preparing these children for dealing with racial prejudice as they grow older.
None of our concerns regarding integration into the neighborhood and our church circle of friends were justified. Our children were and are very well accepted. Our study of skin and hair needs paid off well, and we have learned and taught others how to deal with these issues.
Plffffftbt. As a culture, we place entirely too much emphasis on race as an issue. Many people believe that your identity is based on your race, on your culture. We do not agree. We believe your identity should be based on your relationship with Christ. Cultural Heritage is important, and part of our family study, but it is equally important as our non-adoptive heritage. For example, our adopted children take great pride in claiming that they are direct descendants of Abraham Lincoln, which they are, thru their adoptive mother.
As an adoptive family, no. Most of the people we meet, who know that we adopt, are very supportive of that fact.
If we have it was unknown to us because we really don’t care what others think. If the children are out with only one parent, people sometimes think that we are a blended family (one parent from each race).
No
We have taught them and continue to teach them what is important in creating their identity. That it is not based on the color of their skin or how they look. We have taught them to ignore such remarks and to have a firm self-image. As they grow older and are exposed to more hostility and discrimination, we will deal with those issues.
While it is important to understand their heritage, we often feel that people today confuse culture with identity. We study black heritage and culture, but we do not expose our children to the so called ‘culture’ of today’s society, regardless of race.
Yes, very much so. We have changed both by the factor of adding more children and by adding older children. This has differed from adding children from birth. Our initial expectations of needing time to blend turned out to be too short. Also, as time as progressed we feel less and less of a separation between the birth children and the adoptive children in our thoughts and prayers.
As previously stated, Americans place entirely too much emphasis on race. They equate cultural heritage with identity. We choose not to do that. Also, we make a deliberate choice to either not answer questions that ask us to list racial or ethnic background. On occasions when we do answer those questions, we are careful to list all of our ethnic backgrounds, and list our race as Human.
Adoptive
Parents Family B questions and answers
We have 4 adopted children. All are domestic adoptions. They were placed with us at the ages of 7
yrs., 8 yrs., 7 weeks and 5 ½ weeks. The
7 and 8 year old are African-American.
The babies are Caucasian. The 7 week
old has Native American heritage we have been told. All of the adoptions were finalized within 18
months placement in our home.
We chose to adopt transracially after
reading a biography of a needy sibling group.
Older, special needs adoptees tend to be African American. We felt we should adopt older children and
their race was not a hindrance to us adopting them.
We
attended state mandated adoption training.
It was a two day long seminar covering issues from attachment disorders
to working with therapists, social workers and many other topics.
Yes, one of the presenters was a transracial
parent. She shared many experiences,
concerns and joys from her many years of parenting. She shared issues surrounding having your children
having role models of the same color, the prejudice United State’s society has
against African Americans, especially teenage males, common stereotypes, and
having friendships with those who look like you.
Would
the children accept someone a different color as a mom and dad? Would they care that their siblings were not
black? Would they try to be “white” and
lose their blackness?
We
were reassured by our children’s social worker, therapists and foster parents
that they just wanted parents. They did
not have a mindset about what color their parents would be. So it was only an initial concern. Of course, in a perfect world, it would be
best for them to be in a family where their parents and siblings were the same
color. It has turned out to be a very
small issue. Our oldest, now 13 ½, often
feels others staring at her, because we all look different We have had many conversations about how
different we look, but that the casual onlooker really cannot guess if I am
biological mom or not unless dad is with us.
They can just assume dad is black.
That has helped somewhat. She
does have a problem with us looking different.
She feels very set apart from the family. I do reiterate that this is not a huge
issue. It is something we readdress
frequently. I do think our children try
to be “white” to some extent. They have
to be pushed more to have black friends.
They do not always want to embrace black music. I must force that on them a little bit. We expose them as much as possible to their
culture. It would be very easy for them
to deny their black heritage.
I think there are a lot of parents who do
not prepare their children properly for the world. But I think it is the opposite. They do not prepare them to be black. It is such a different world. Blacks tend to live in different areas than
white folks. Will my children be
comfortable living in a predominantly black neighborhood? I pray they will be. I would like them to be surrounded by those
who have jobs to support their families and live in neighborhoods of mostly
blacks just as easily as in a very mixed neighborhood or a predominately white
area. I want them to be able to fit in
everywhere. I do not know if we are
providing enough in that area or not. We
are trying. We have Hispanic and black
neighbors, although our neighborhood is mostly white. We make special efforts to teach them black
history, music and other cultural differences.
Sometimes I think my children grasp how much hatred there is toward them
merely because of the color of their skin.
Sometimes they can ignore that and make people get to know who they
are. We have insulated them from some of
that prejudice, but we have to prepare them for it at the same time.
Oh,
most definitely. All you have to do is
walk into a Walmart and see the way people look at you. Sometimes they admire you. Sometimes they look down on you. People think nothing of asking you if you
have adopted and want to know your whole story.
The kids get very tired of this.
We were at an indoor amusement park this winter and a lady in the hot
tub approached me. She wondered if I had
adopted my now 12 year old son who is African/American. I told her yes, and inside of me I wished she
hadn’t spoken. She wanted to thank me
for taking him in. In these cases, the
children are treated with preference.
They treat us like we should have our feet kissed for taking poor,
little black children into our homes.
They look at these children as undesirables. They wish they had enough grace to adopt them. In a way, they mean well, but at the same
time they really mean they couldn’t cope with having a black person in their
home.
People have said nasty things. Why would you want to adopt a black
child? It hasn’t been often, but some
folks are brazen enough to say such things.
They wonder where the children’s “real” parents are. There are times when the kids are chosen to
be a part of plays, athletic teams, etc. because the county is looking to fill
their quotas. They want my black
children, so they look like they are doing a better job of being equal. It has nothing to do with what they do, but
that my children want to be a part of whatever activity. They kids are often singled out for
photographs. My 12 year old is on the
cover of the state 4-H bulletin possibly because of his color.
One
day a lady pulled up into my driveway and came stalking towards me. No hellos, just do you have a little
boy? Well, yes, I have several. What did he look like? He’s a little black boy about 8 years
old. Well, he has been running after my
car giving me the finger. The tone of
her comment made me irritated. Does my
son run and chase cars? Maybe. Would he intentionally give her the finger?
No. Had this have been another child, I
truly believe she would have given him grace to see if he ever did it
again. It was a one time
occurrence. She has never stopped
again. I don’t know if he did it or not. I told him not to chase cars and give them
the finger. I really don’t think he did
it. I think he was running in the yard
and throwing his hands around and she flipped out.
We talk a lot and try to explain to them
that people are not always nice. There are certain places we choose not to go
to because of discriminatory treatment.
I’ve
given you quite a few examples.
Oh, so very important. We talk about food and eat traditional black
food a lot which is also poor white food.
WE talk about the drug culture they were born into and how important it
is for them to stay away from that world.
They know some people with substance abuse problems and have seen the
negative effects. We teach them music,
books, movies, dress, etc. We attend an
all black church sometimes. They are
conscious of black ‘style”. All of this
incorporated into our lifestyle, so it’ more of who we are as family rather
than just them.
It’s
been a tough road. The transracial part
is by far the easiest. The results of
their prenatal exposures to drug and alcohol, abuse and neglect are far harder
to overcome. The behaviors are very
disruptive to the family. Interestingly our oldest white daughter wishes she
wasn’t so pale! We always tease about
her paleness. They kids are bonded as
siblings and think of themselves as siblings even though they’d like to disown
each other too. That happens with birth
siblings too.
We
often tease that we are from the human race.
It gets bothersome. I have
American Indian background, so I never know for sure what I should put on those
forms. Quite often we leave them
blank.
Appendix Three: transcript of the sibling’s
interviews
Sibling
2A questions and answers
There are 12 people in my family, 11 here, 1
in heaven, I am the second oldest
I was excited because I was going to have
new brothers and sisters. I was scared because I didn’t know how they were
going to respond to me, and how we would bond.
I didn’t care, I knew God had told us that
we were to be there family, and I was to be there brother.
No, I wasn’t treated any different. A lot of
my friends fell in love with my new bro’s and sis’s. Nobody ever treated badly,
though we have had some people “look” at my family.
Nope
We make sure to let them [the adopted
children] all know that it’s ok to be another color; it’s the way that God made
them.
I can’t think of any.
Above Answer
I never really thought about that. I guess
just how people would respond and treat our family.
I keep saying to people that yeah there my
bro’s or sis’s and I love them.
Yes, a lot. Going from 4 to 7 to 10… was a
very hard but interesting change. Especially after we moved to our house. With
1 bathroom, we have learned what being patient really is!
Sibling
1B questions and answers
I am the second oldest of 7.
I was excited because I was finally going to
get a little sister. I just always
wanted a sister.
I never thought about it.
I’d say yes.
I remember one time at the pool.
Some kids were making fun of my sister because she was black. All of the constant questions about her black
hair are annoying.
Sometimes people just say mean things. A lot of times don’t even mean to be rude,
but they are. They want to know why my
sister is black and I wonder why does it matter?
We talk about it all of the time. I’m very open to tell my friends that I don’t
care what color they are. I don’t like
it when I am in a very white environment now.
As previously stated, all of the annoying
questions about my sister’s hair when she wears extensions. Why strangers feel free to ask these does not
make sense? We are on TV a lot. They do a lot of stories about our
family. We never remember to watch
these…
Well, sometimes we tell people to cut it out
if we know them. We tell my brother and
sister to stand up for themselves. Oh
well about the TV stories.
I do not remember.
n/a
Uhm… My brother and sister have
to spend a lot of time in work camp. My
little sister is a pain in the butt. We
have therapists and PCAs in our home.
Some of the toys and things are fun.
They tease me about being the pale one.
But I can’t object, because I know it’s true. I think it helps us be
closer that we can tease about our colors.
It shouldn’t matter first of all. When you have to write it down, I want to be
like our friends and say we are human.
Sibling
2B questions and answers
I have 6 brothers and sisters and I am
number 5 in the family.
None really
I didn’t care.
No
I don’t think so
We sometimes make our siblings play in the backyard,
so they don’t get their feelings hurt by mean neighbors.
Yeah,
they probably do. I can’t think of any
examples.
No answer
Not really
n/a
No, my parents have to give more help to my
black brother and sister because they need more help. I don’t really think it has made us any
closer.
I
like being called an Indian.